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Journal - Current Issue
Editorial
Ranjana RaySarmistha De BasuThe Editors
| This is a special volume based on the proceedings of the two day International conference on BENGAL BASIN AND BAY OF BENGAL INTERACTION SPHERE: PAN INDIAN AND PAN ASIAN CONTACTS, held on February 28 and 29th 2024, convened under the auspices of Kolkata Society for Asian Studies and Anthropological Survey of India. The Bengal basin was formed of deltaic sedimentary deposits brought down by Ganga- Brahmaputra system fromthe erosion of the Himalayan and Indo-Burmese ranges.Compared to most of the regions of the Indian subcontinent, geographically the Bengal basin took a long time for becoming suitable for human habitation. Because of fertile soil and congenial climate soon the basin became well populated. Bay of Bengal and numerous streams and tributaries traversing through the basin, provided navigable routes and people travelled both from inland and foreign lands for various purposes. Seafaring vessels could even travel further inland by sailing through the waters of the mighty rivers. Contributors of this volume have focused on the history, archaeology, economy of the region, political situation of the Bay of Bengal, people’s migration in ancient times established through molecular biology, ecosystem of the coastal region, trade, politics, irregular migration and security concern at the littoral zones. A total of twelve papers are published in this volume. Four abstracts, considering their importance to the theme of the conference are also included. The seminar had began with the presentation of the paper by Subhadra Channa, entitled as, The Falsity of Boundaries, Cultural Continuities and Blurred Identities: Mapping the Connectivity of the Bengal Basin beyond its Geography and Imagined Location. She has pointed out that Bengal basin cannot be limited by political boundaries. She has defended her point with example from history, ethnicity and culture of the Bengal basin. Durga Basu’s paper, Geo-Archaeological approaches for understanding settlement history of Deltaic Bengal and its contact with neighbouring countries is on the archaeological evidence of the settlement and growth of civilization in Bengal basin. The article, The Bay of Bengal in Indo-Pacific Geopolitics by Souradeep Sen has dealt with foreign policy of India and its assessment in the present context of thecountries in the Indo-Pacific zone. SujonGhosh, in his paper,The Dynamics of Bay of Bengal: Asian Geopolitics in the Futurehas discussed in the same line about present importance of Bay of Bengal in the perspective of present political importanceof countries in the Indo-Pacific region.The Sundarbans: A Mangrove Microcosm Shaping South Asian Geopoliticsis the article by Rakhi Mitra. She pointed out the economic potential of the Sunderbans with its eco-specific products, specially the fishing economy on the one hand and maritime vigilance on the other hand. Banrida T. Langstieh has dealt into the population and its molecular biology for understanding perspective of population dispersal and structure of the early inhabitants of the coastal zone of Bengal basin, especially of the Austronesian group, in the paper titled as Genetic, linguistic and molecular anthropological study of the Indian Ocean Littoral, in Austronesian dispersal, across the Pacific. Suchandra Ghosh in the article, The port of ‘Samandar’ in the Northern Bay of Bengal and its maritime and coastal linkages (c. 800CE-1500CE), has given a detailed account of the importance of Bay of Bengal for trade of India with different countries both in the south east and western Asia. The author has taken the data from historical sources with an emphasis on the port Samandar, successor of which later was the grand port of Chittagong. The author also has given account of some of the items that were exported in the medieval period, for which India was famous. Shreyashi Paulin the paper entitled, Indian Saltpeter and the Political Economy of Bay of Bengal, discussed about necessity of saltpeter for preparing gunpowder that were needed by the British army for their guns. Bihar was the primary source of saltpeter. It was heavy and waterways were convenient for its transport. Northern Bay of Bengal thus became an active area of trade and commerce. Illegal migration through the Bay of Bengal from the neighbouring countries have raised question of security for the people living along the coastal region in India. The paper titled as Irregular Migration and Security Concerns in the Bay of BengalRegionbySwagata Sarkhel has raised the question of security of such migration. Example is given of the Rohingya migration from the Myanmar. The paper, The Shy Coconut Palm: A Cross-Cultural Understanding of its Imprint on the Ecocultural Landscapes of Bengal and Southeast Asia by Shreyashi Chaudhuri and Kuntal Narayan Chaudhuri have discussed the importance of coconut plant in the intercultural realm of The countries in the zone of Bay of Bengal. Rana Rohit’s paper,A Socio Economic Analysis of Zero Tillage and Mechanical Rice Transplanter on Farm Economy in Punjab and Haryana State of India, is a little bit diverted from Bengal Basin to Northwestern part of India. Four abstracts are printed in this volume. These were of invited lectures and are of interest to the theme of the conference. Bengal water craft: Unknown Heritage by Swarup Bhattacharya is quite interesting and self explanatory with plates in the abstract where the age old craft of the boat makers are illustrated. Sumita Basu Majumdar proposed that the recently discovered Roman Coins from Khlong Thom in Thailand were actually made in India and is an imitation of the Roman coins, in the paper, Bay of Bengal Interaction Sphere and the Roman Imitation Coins from Southeast Asia. The third abstract is byEng Jin OOI of an invited speech. The topic, A dhāraṇī culture shared between Eastern India and the wider Asian region, explained that dhāraṇī ‘, the Buddhist mantra, inscribed on stone slabs and stamped on multiple clay sealings, was found at a number of archaeological sites in Odisha, Bihar, and Uttar Pradesh. These Travelled to South East Asian peninsula through Bay of Bengal. Approaches to theDevelopment of the Bay of Bengal Region and Asian interactions: Communities, Agencies and Ecology by Selvakumar. V describes the prehistoric period and interactions on important cultural region of Asia connecting South Asia and Southeast Asia from the first millennium BCE. Finally and most importantly, Kalyan K. Chakravarty had delivered valedictory lecture and the title is, Strategizing Positive Interaction in the Bay of Bengal Interaction Sphere. He has meticulously analyzed all the presentations of the international conferences, synthesized the lectures, categorized them and has given a comprehensive understanding and conclusion derived out of the conference. The editors of this volume would like to thank the participants who have provided with written versions of their papers presented and enriched the theme of the conference. | |
The Falsity of Boundaries, Cultural Continuities and Blurred Identities: Mapping the Connectivity of the Bengal Basin beyond its Geography and Imagined Location.
Subhadra Mitra Channa
| Abstract | The falsity of identifying certain geo-political demarcations as actual convergences of specific ethnic, social and cultural identities or as genetic pools has been demonstrated multiple times (Wouters and Heneisse 2023, Ramirez, 2014, Channa 2013). People have never been confined to the regions where they may be located at a specific time period and cultures have travelled through their human mediums across seas, mountains and deserts, intermingling and exchanging goods, ideas and influences. Each cultural region can only be located and captured in a moment of time, never across a temporal zone and these momentary captures are the photographic culmination of long histories and interactions that manifest as ‘regional’ only in that flash but otherwise they are a stream that has been flowing and continue to flow. The Bengal basin has been located within a stream of flow culture and human bodies across a vast region, linking it by trade, travel and ideological campaigns to the North, South, East and West. In my paper, I will specifically focus on the North-Eastward zone linking Bengal to Burma, via Assam, Meghalaya, Nagaland and Mizoram. This is a continuous zone especially through its mobile and diverse populations of indigenous people on the highlands bordering the various zones and just as the numerous waterways and major rivers of this region have made trade and population movement a continuous feature of the region, land routes through these mountain tracks have also linked the various zones, through trade, religious preachers and transfer of technology. From as early as the 13th century, horses from Mongolia were being traded in Bengal via Mynamar, when it was under Mongolian rule. Buddhist preachers known as gosains have traversed the hazardous Himalayan tracks to preach Buddhism in Tibet and peasants from Bengal, Hindus, Muslims and Santals; experts in plough cultivation have moved into upper Assam, Meghalaya and Tripura to do plough cultivation and clear the forests for settled agriculture as the local people there were only conversant with slash and burn cultivation. Mynamar, during the colonial period had a sizeable Bengali diaspora as Burma was part of British territory and seen almost as an extension of India. Bengali literature and family histories are replete with these connections. These flows of material goods, people, beliefs and technology deconstruct the artificial political entities of the various states whose identities too have been constantly shifting with the changes in power regimes and transfer of populations. The Bengal basin is therefore best viewed as part of a larger landscape or more aptly a part of a larger flowing river of ways of life, languages, beliefs and patterns of culture whose outermost limits are always fuzzy. |
| Keywords | Boundaries, falsity, geopolitical identity |
Geo-Archaeological approaches for understanding settlement history of Deltaic Bengal and its contact with neighbouring countries
Durga Basu
| Abstract | This essay aims to delve into the geo-archaeological and historical background of the Gangetic Delta region. The Gangetic Delta is formed where the Ganges River empties into the Bay of Bengal. The lower Ganges system encompasses two primary channels: the Ganga Bhagirathi on the right and the Padma on the left. In its upper non-tidal stretch, the Ganges is known as the Bhagirathi, while the lower portion is called the Hooghly. The entire area near the mouth of the Gangetic Delta is crisscrossed by a network of tidal channels and distributaries of the major rivers. Epic tales mention the existence of five hundred rivers once flowing in the region where the Ganges converges with the sea. Even in 15th/16th century Bengali texts, the Ganges is revered as Satamukhi, meaning a hundred mouths. The Bengal Basin, the world’s largest delta, is shaped by the Ganga-Brahmaputra river system and encompasses significant portions of West Bengal and Bangladesh. Within the mid-basin zone of the West Bengal sector of the Bengal Basin, three distinct deltaic plains can be identified. The uppermost, mature deltaic plain, known as the DumDum surface, spans the districts of Murshidabad, Nadia, and North 24 Parganas. The intermediate deltaic plain occupies parts of Nadia, Burdwan, North and South 24 Parganas, Hooghly, Howrah, and Midnapur on both sides of the Hooghly estuary. This plain developed under an estuary-deltaic environment and has since been modified by fluvial and tidal processes, asobserved by R.N. Ghosh. The lowest-level deltaic plain, characterized by extensive mud flats, mangrove marshes, swamps, and creeks, forms atide-dominated, active tidal estuary delta. This portion of the deltaic plain is predominantly found in South 24 Parganas. This study aims to shed light on the human settlements in the deltaic region of West Bengal through geo-archaeological explorations. Geo-archaeology plays a crucial role in understanding not only the landscape and environmental conditions but also in deciphering human behavioural patterns and activities within their evolving environmental context. This paper seeks to highlight some key settlement sites, their distinctive characteristics, and their interconnectedness with surrounding regions. This essay aims to delve into the geo - archaeological and historical back ground of the Gangetic Delta region. The delta region of West Bengal has been considered as one of the core regions of human settlement of ancient Bengal. The growth of extensive settlements in any region depends on its geo- physical character which not only offers a congenial environment for this development but it can provide the sustainability to the people and their culture for a longer period. So before we discuss the settlement history of deltaic region in its geo- archaeological perspectives, it is pertinent to explain first what is Geo- archaeology and its significance and then the geological and physical conditions of Delta region of west Bengal. Only after this discussion we will put the archaeological situation of the deltaic West Bengal in a proper framework. |
| Keywords | Geo - archaeology, Deltaic region, Mature delta, Active delta, archaeological sites |
The Bay of Bengal in Indo-Pacific Geopolitics
Souradeep Sen
| Abstract | The resurgence of state-centric geopolitics challenges optimistic narratives surrounding the fifth wave of globalisation, refuting thereby, the expectation of a geo-centric global politics that pivots on free markets and open lines of communication sans the costs. In this era of strategic turbulence, nations prioritise rational planning to safeguard their interests that often paradoxically snowball into the weaponisation of the once-glorified ways of economic interdependence: interaction, connectivity and access. This is particularly evident in the maritime domain. The Indo-Pacific, surpassing the Atlantic in strategic importance, has become the focal point for global geostrategic competition, with the Bay of Bengal playing a crucial role therein. This analysis explores the geopolitical significance of the Bay in the context of the contemporary maritime power competition in the Indo-Pacific, emphasising in the process, China’s rise and the associated threat perceptions of South and East Asian countries. Additionally, it delves into the strategies of ‘congagement’ practiced by India and its regional and global partners towards China, thereby assessing the efficacy of such approaches in alignment with India's broader foreign policy goals in the Indo-Pacific. |
| Keywords | Bay of Bengal; China; East Asia; Geopolitics; India’s Maritime Strategy; Indo-Pacific; South Asia |
The Dynamics of Bay of Bengal: Asian Geopolitics in the Future
Sujon Ghosh
| Abstract | Bay of Bengal is emerging as an important geopolitical, economic and strategic theatre in the twenty first century in parallel to the developments in the broader Indo-Pacific region. The Bay of Bengal was important for world trade till the close of the nineteenth century. This has led the Bay to acquire an importance that cannot be ignored. With the withdrawal of the colonial powers and the onset of the post-war state arrangement, Asia discarded the erstwhile networks and connections. Previously a highway of migration among nations, Bay of Bengal as an arena was mostly dormant in the latter half of the 20th century. The onset of citizenship norms restricted free migration, while the new states turned inward and did not trade frequently.Among the newly independent nations mistrust grew and weakened the bond of cohesiveness and unity, making the Bay to lose its identity. This was extenuated by the creation of regional identities of ‘Southeast Asia’ and ‘South Asia’. While Southeast Asia restored their unity under ASEAN in 1965 and South Asia under SAARC in 1985, no real effort to revitalize the entire swath of the Bay as one entity was made until the initiation of India’s ‘Look East’ policy in 1991 and later the formation of BIMSTEC in 1997 brought the Bay of Bengal further into focus. The Bay of Bengal as a region is presently going through a reorientation from a dormant sea to a hotbed of new opportunitiesand opened the gates of trade and exchange, laying greater emphasis on a region that was not prioritized previously.The result transformed the Bay of Bengal from a forgotten sea to a sea-bridge that would connect South with Southeast Asia.In the new millennium, the rise of China and India and their interest and focus on this region, has brought about forced cooperation, connectivity and conflict forcing bilateral, multilateral, regional and sub-regional agreements by littoral states. This has led the Bay to acquire an importance that cannot be ignored. As the Chinese footprint is growing across the Indian Ocean, the possibility of a Sino-Indian conflict at the sea is increasing as well. Through its Belt and Road Initiative, Beijing is encircling India with the so called ‘string of pearls’ around the neck of India’s coastline. Beijing, through the ‘bridgehead’ strategy, plans to connect to the Bay of Bengal through an overland transport system through Myanmar. As the scramble for connectivity has peaked, India and other extra-regional states have also joined the bandwagon. For New Delhi, the Bay of Bengal is becoming important for its eastward ambitions and for countering China. The Bay of Bengal not only forms the centrepiece of India’s Act East Policy but it is also New Delhi’s springboard to venture further east. The new geopolitical nomenclature of the Indo-Pacific, extending from the western shores of the United States of America to the eastern shores of Africa, also places the Bay of Bengal at the centre.The strategic factors for the resurgence of the Bay of Bengal are also supplemented by a host of conditions exclusive to the region, which has a trans-boundary effect. The Bay of Bengal oversees the most important trading routes owing to its proximity to the Malaccan straits. These routes are susceptible to threats ranging from maritime terrorism to piracy, drug trafficking to illegal migration. Further, the waters of the region have been witnessing one of the largest refugee movements in the recent past owing to the Rohingya crisis. The strategies of the regional and extra-regional actors as well as non-traditional security factors are reinvigorating the emergence of the Bay of Bengal. The dynamics of the region will determine the geopolitics of Asia in the years to come. |
| Keywords | Bay of Bengal, ASEAN, Act East, geopolitics |
The Sundarbans: A Mangrove Microcosm Shaping South Asian Geopolitics
Rakhi Mitra
| Abstract | The Bengal Basin and the Bay of Bengal have historically connected South Asia. This article examines how the Sundarbans, a vast mangrove forest shared by India and Bangladesh, shape the geopolitical landscape of South Asia. The Sundarbans' significance goes beyond national borders, impacting the region's economic ties, environmental health, cultural exchange, and strategic partnerships.The research employs environmental security and governance theories to analyse the Sundarbans' multifaceted influence on the region's geopolitics. The analysis focuses on three key areas: ecological interdependence, the blue economy, and governance structures. This approach reconnoitres the interplay between local dynamics within the Sundarbans and the broader regional context. While previous investigations recognise the Sundarbans' ecological significance, their role in shaping South Asian geopolitics has been understudied. The article emphasises the Sundarbans' critical position in maintaining regional biodiversity, mitigating climate change impacts, and protecting coastlines.Additionally, it supports the blue economy by enduring activities like fishing and potentially offering resources for economic development.However, challenges exist. Maritime security concerns, intricate border management, and regional rivalries in the Bay of Bengal pose noteworthy threats. The Sundarbans are a captivating case study, highlighting how seemingly local environmental issues can have profound geopolitical consequences.The article concludes by calling for a unified regional approach highlighting ecological sustainability, economic development, and enhanced maritime security cooperation. This collaborative approach would promote stability and shared prosperity across South Asia, benefiting India and Bangladesh. |
| Keywords | Sundarbans, geopolitics, South Asia, environment, economy, security, 3cooperation, sustainability |
Genetic, linguistic and molecular anthropological study of the Indian Ocean Littoral, in Austronesian dispersal, across the Pacific
Banrida T. Langstieh
| Abstract | The Indian Ocean region is a critical route/corridor/barrier for the migration and settlement of people whose social, linguistic and genetic ancestry is of interest to anthropologists worldwide. Varying from the ‘little tradition’ of small isolated populations to the ‘great tradition’ of global and admixed heritage, in the field of collating evidences from culture, language and anthropological genetics this paper will examine the ‘Austronesian dispersal’ within the boundaries of the Indian ocean sporadically sprinkled across Pacific islanders. Littoral or near shore settlements may have simply act as ‘gateways’ as would have been the case with pre-historic settlements somewhere near a fresh water source or river bank. Physical environmental changes such as those driven by drastic ecological catastrophes including severe and acute adaptations to climatic and nutritional stressors can leave signatures providing vital clues for the dispersal of humankind. During the last two decades or more, a plethora of genomic information has surfaced tracing the genetic history of an archaic hominin group from ancient DNA. In the light of ensuing works by palaeoanthropologists and evolutionary biologists, the dispersal and migration of people, genes and languages studying human history either directly through their remains or indirectly through tools, pottery or other cultural items have provided concerns over interpretation of archaeological dates. Similarly assessing the reliability of linguistic data which may favour a close correlation between genes and languages, yet at times appear to conflict with genetic evidence. Despite these limitations, several ideas has been put forth concerning the dispersal of modern humans from Africa via the southern route, along the coast of India, eventually reaching Sahul the landmass consisting of Australia and New Guinea, which were connected until rising sea levels separated them about 8000 years ago. This putative “early southern dispersal”, as it came to be known, would now be underwater. From single versus multiple dispersal models molecular anthropologists have re-examined hypotheses about the colonization of the Pacific with different pliable approaches to understand population histories in the context of the ‘Austronesian dispersal’ across the Pacific. |
| Keywords: | Molecular Anthropology, Genetic, Linguistic, Archaeological, Migration, Dispersal, Austro-Asiatic, Austronesian, Indian Ocean, Pacific |
The port of ‘Samandar’ in the Northern Bay of Bengal and its maritime and coastal linkages (c. 800CE-1500CE)
Suchandra Ghosh
| Abstract | Contacts across the Bay of Bengal were based on the movement across sea, of objects, people, and of knowledge systems. In this context, the maritime route in particular gained primacy, as the Bay of Bengal holds the centre stage between the two regions. The Bay of Bengal network encapsulated the Myanmarese, Cambodian, and Thai mainland polities, and the different kingdoms on the upper Malay Peninsula, and the northern and western coasts of Sumatra along with India’s eastern seaboard, and Sri Lanka. Along with trade, it was religion as well, which also acted as one of the conduits that facilitated civilizational dialogue across the Bay. It looms large in Arabic and Persian travel accounts from the mid ninth century CE., being designated as Bahr-i-Harkand in the Silsilatal-Tawārikh by SulaymanTajir in 851 c.e.—the earliest known source referencing the Bay of Bengal as Bahr-i- Harkand. The Moroccan traveller al Idrisi, in ‘The delight of those who seek to wander through the regions of the world’ (Nuzhatu-l Mushtak) of the mid-12th century c.e., writes, “Samandar is a large town, commercial and rich, and where there are good profits to be made…it stands upon a river which comes from the country of Kashmir. Rice and various grains, especially excellent wheat are to be obtained here…Aloe wood is brought here from the country of Karmut (Kāmarūpa) 15 days distance by a river of which the waters are sweet……..one days sail from this city, there is a large island well peopled and frequented by merchants of all countries…..” The descriptions point to the fact that Samandar was a premier port of southeastern Bengal at that time. Thus it can be surmised that by the mid-ninth century C.E., both the sea and its port attracted the attention of Arabic and Persian writers and became a part and parcel of the Arab geographical world. That a sea was named after a particular unit—Harikela—speaks for the region’s importance and also its popularity among the seafarers of the time. This was the moment when the people of Chittagong, then Harikela, encountered a group of people, the Arab travelers, practicing a new religion called Islam. Till then they had experienced Buddhism and Brahmanical religion, Buddhism being the dominant one. However coastal networks often offer interesting insights for understanding connected histories. In this presentation I would focus on the coastal network between Southeastern Bengal to western and South-western Myanmar. Western Myanmar encompasses the Arakanregion (present Rakhine) which was closely linked with Harikela both by land and sea and in South-western Myanmar I shall privilege Martaban to other ports like Dawei. We have numismatics, art historical and textual sources to understand their connected history. This geographical continuum led to frequent movements of people between the two areas and some common cultural practices enmeshed within various direct and braided networks. The coinage tradition of Harikela was borrowed from the silver coins of the Chandra rulers of Arakan. Along with Arakan, Martaban in South-west Myanmar was perhaps linked with Harikela. We have textual support of more or less from the same period for this. Through this essay I would argue in a pronounced manner that connectivity between the regions of maritime Southeast Asia with present Bengal and Bihar post 8th century CE was possible only through the port of Samandar in present Chittagong as by then the port of Tamralipta was not in use and this deserves the attention of scholars. There was a unity of land route and sea route in this case. The sea-routes did play important role in shaping up inter-Asian connectivity. |
| Keywords: | Samundar, Harikela, trade, sea routes |
Indian Saltpetre and the Political Economy of Bay of Bengal
Shreyashi Paul
| Abstract | The dominant course of historical research associated with European intervention in the Bay of Bengal as a catalyst of change. To the Imperialist point of view the coming of European Traders in the shores of the Bay of Bengal denoted drastic changes for the indigenous commodities and communities of the Eastern region of the Indian Subcontinent. With the establishment of the European commerce, the regional commodities became exposed to a larger European market that transformed their economic and commercial prospect. In contrast to this Eurocentric argument, scholars have highlighted the significance of the commodities of the Eastern region that in the first instance lured the European Companies to begin trade in the region. As explored off late, historians trace the transformation of the material entity of commodities produced in the region through their diverse usages in the distant European cities. The development of the material-based enquiry, in recent years made significant impact that furthered the understanding of the historical influence of the trade network associated to the region of Bay of Bengal. Nevertheless, to this robust field of historical pursuit, this study seeks to add the dimension of the impact of the region over the European warfare since the late half of the seventeenth century. Due to the production of saltpeter in the eastern parts of the Subcontinent, the latter half of the seventeenth century witnessed significant increase in European trading establishment in the Bay of Bengal region. As this paper seeks to locate, trade in saltpeter was crucial to both European military development, and the Bay of Bengal trade nexus. |
| Keywords: | Bay of Bengal, regional commodities, material, material-based enquiry, saltpeter, military |
Irregular Migration and Security Concerns in the Bay of Bengal Region
Swagata Sarkhel
| Abstract: | The Bay of Bengal region has always remained the center of geo-politics of Asia due to its commercial connectivity and trade bonds that it has developed across the coast. Interaction among civilizations and cultural exchanges across the sea-lane has also enriched the region. For the states located in the maritime zone, maintenance of security in the sea-lane is very crucial. From time and again the Bay of Bengal region has faced security threats, one of most sensitive ones is the problem of irregular maritime migration through the sea-route hampering the security of the nation-states located along the coast. In 2015, the massive exodus of stateless Muslims from the western zones of Myanmar, undergoing risky and hazardous sea voyages had attracted the international attention. The irregular migratory movements of the persecuted ethnic minorities had raised humanitarian concerns. The complex maritime migration has also enhanced the scope of transnational criminal activities through the vital international marine route. As the “Boat Crisis” got intensified, the bilateral relation among the neighbours got strained. States were in dilemma to balance between state security and humanitarian crisis. The situation demanded strong maritime governance, strict international laws and regional cooperation among the stakeholder countries. This paper will mainly focus on the contrasting security questions that have been raised in course of the crisis. Regional cooperation, mutual understanding and strengthening the maritime governance can only handle the situation and can control the complexities emerging out of the uncontrolled maritime migration. So, another area of highlight will be the nature of unfolding of the sea-governance in the Bay of Bengal region. |
| Keywords: | Maritime security, humanitarian crisis, maritime governance, migration, refugee crisis |
The Shy Coconut Palm: A Cross-Cultural Understanding of its Imprint on the Ecocultural Landscapes of Bengal and Southeast Asia
Kuntal Narayan Chaudhuri and Shreyashi Chaudhuri
| Abstract: | Cocos nucifera L. (Arecaceae), the coconut palm, is a cultural icon of the moist tropics where these trees epitomize the coastal vegetation. Although the fruit is naturally adapted for dispersal by sea currents, its pantropical dissemination and inland colonization was achieved only with human help. Today, about 11 million farmers in almost 90 countries depend on this plantation crop for their livelihoods. With significant economic value, practically every part of this palm is useful to humans, and this has sustained numerous traditional communities for millennia. In addition to this practical significance, the coconut has also penetrated into the lingual, cultural, social, and spiritual matrix of traditional communities across the globe. Strategically poised in the extreme east of the Indian subcontinent, the Bengal region has had ancient land connections with Southeast Asia through the northeast, as well as early sea links across the Bay of Bengal which still remains even today a mare incognitum. Bengal not only acted as an intermediary in trade and commerce, but also played an important role in the cultural exchanges with Southeast Asia. This humble fruit is a source of sustenance, as well as a symbol of identity, holding a special place in the cultures of both Bengal and Southeast Asia. This study endeavours to trace the mark left by the coconut palm on the ecocultural landscapes around the Bay of Bengal through the biocultural approach, and explore its cross-cultural significance by encompassing the historical, social, and scientific dimensions. |
| Keywords: | Bengal, Biocultural Heritage, Ecocultural Landscapes, Coconut, Southeast Asia |
A Socio Economic Analysis of Zero Tillage and Mechanical Rice Transplanter on Farm Economy in Punjab and Haryana State of India
Rana Rohit
| Abstract: | Zero tillage is reducing human efforts. Likewise, machine effortis also reducing cost of cultivation, soil erosion, crop duration and irrigation requirement and weed effect which is better than tillage. Zero Tillage (ZT) is also called as No Tillage or reduced Tillage. The zero-tillage system is practices in the Indo-Gangetic plains of India where rice-wheat cropping is present. Wheat will be planted after rice harvest. Zero tillage proves better for direct-seeded rice, maize, soybean, cotton, pigeon pea, moonbeam, cluster bean, pearl millet during Kharif season and wheat, barley, chickpea, mustard and lentil during Rabi season. A Mechanical rice transplanter is a specialized transplanter made to transplant rice seedlings onto wet paddy fields. The two main types of Mechaqnical rice transplanter are the riding type and walking type. The riding type is power-driven and can usually transplant six lines in one pass; the walking type is manually driven and can usually transplant four lines in one pass. Although rice is grown in Asian Country, rice transplanters are used mainly in East, Southeast, and South Asia. Machine transplanting using rice transplanters requires considerably less time and labour than manual transplanting. The Rice and Wheat cropping system in Punjab and Haryana led to various farm experiments and encouraged the farmers to adopt Resource conserving Technology (RCTs), like Mechanical Rice Transplanter and Zero Tillage methods to be adopted by farmers. |
| Keywords: | RCTResource Conserving Technology, ZT Zero Technology, CIMMYT International Maize and Wheat Improvement Center, KVK Krishi Vigyan Kendra |
Bengal Watercraft:Unknown Heritage
Dr. Swarup Bhattacharyya
| Abstract: | Watercraft is one of the most important cultural elements in any riverine/maritime community; here the members directly reciprocate their behaviour in ecology. As a result, keen observation is extremely essential to study the designs and the construction patterns of watercraft according to the informal rules and procedures handed down over the years by the boatmaker. Boat making as a process of livelihood practice is a direct response to the ecological settings, which must be studied contextually – from environmental factors, the shape and size of the watercraft itself, raw materials, and so on. Ethnography of riverine/maritime culture documents riverine/maritime knowledge of the past and also establishes the process of change of that knowledge over time and how it connects to present-day folk knowledge. Maritime ethnography – as a domain of study is diachronic which establishes a temporal dimension of the watercraft-making process chronologically. Boat is the oldest mode of transport. It was invented much before the invention of the wheel. Wood was the material which early man shaped into a hollowed structure that can sit on the water. That was the boat, the dugout, a watertight compartment where penetration of water was prevented. The invention of the boat makes human migration easier. The boat is the tool that gives thrust to explore resources of aquatic food, and resource of distant islands. Bengal is not landlocked but rather riverine. Numerous water bodies and water resistance were overcome by those people living in this part of the world by innovating various types of watercraft in time immemorial. Not only do they overcome the barrier of almighty rivers but also oceans. The intricate relationship with waterbody and boat manifests the culture called boat culture. In this presentation visual ethnographic account on boats of Bengal is a humble tribute to those boat makers and boatmen. |
Bay of Bengal Interaction Sphere and the Roman Imitaion Coins from Southeast Asia
Susmita Basu Majumdar
| Abstract: | This paper addresses the issue of recently discovered Roman imitation coins from Southeast Asia in the perspective of the Bay of Bengal interaction sphere. These imitations are unique and bear evidences of creation and production of hybrids in and around Khlong Thom in Southeast Asia. These coins are in the form of pendants. On the basis of primary sources or empirical data the paper would like to address the broader issue of production, metal trade and cultural interaction between the Bay of Bengal coast and mainly maritime and partially mainland Southeast Asia. The transmission of ideas and trade linkages will be addressed. We shall raise pertinent questions like were the Khlong Thom pendants imported from India or were they made locally in Khlong Thom? Brigette Borell has identified this coin as a Roman imitation. The present author has identified it as a a local manufacture bearing Indian influence. According to present author one of the pendants bears close resemblance with Satavahana style portrait besides this there are four Brahmi letters though very distinct yet making no sense. This is a hitherto unknown combination of hybrid imitation and this is the first of its kind where a Satavahana portrait has been used as an opposed die to a Roman reverse device. In an attempt to situate this pendant from Khlong Thom we shall compare it with parallels from the Bay of Bengal interaction sphere. |
Approaches to the Development of the Bay of Bengal Region and Asian interactions: Communities, Agencies and Ecology
Selvakumar. V
| Abstract: | Bay of Bengal Zone is an important cultural region of Asia connecting South Asia and Southeast Asia. The region has cultural developments from the prehistoric period and interactions have been there from the first millennium BCE. The coastal stretch of the region has been the home of several communities and villages and urban centres. With the development of fisheries, industries and urban centres in the coastal areas, the issues of ecological balance have become important. While marine resources are important for the development of the blue economy, we need to ensure the ecological balance of the coastal areas. The coastal areas have the traces of ancient cities and coastal heritage monuments which bear the changes along the coastline. The stakeholders of the region need to work together for the sustainable development of this region. The paper addresses the issues of conservation, ecology and development and the participation of communities, corporates and stakeholders in this initiative. |
A Dhāraṇī Culture Shared Between Eastern India and the Wider Asian Region
Eng Jin OOI, Ph.D.
| Abstract: | The ritual of dhāraṇī practice has a long history in various Buddhist traditions. Dhāraṇī, generally known as a mantra, is a functioning code believed to provide protection and the power to generate merit for Buddhist devotees when it is recited, stamped, or copied in a ritual process. Around and during the second half of the first millennium, one of these dhāraṇīs, the Bodhigarbhālaṅkāralakṣa-dhāraṇī or the Dhāraṇī of the Hundred Thousand Ornaments of the Essence of Awakening, was widely circulated in the Eastern-Gangetic Plain and Eastern India. This Sanskrit dhāraṇī, inscribed on stone slabs and stamped on multiple clay sealings, was recovered in numerous archaeological sites in Odisha, Bihar, and Uttar Pradesh. However, the practice of invoking its benefits was not limited to these regions. Traces of this dhāraṇī, in the form of clay sealings or metal stamps, were found in the north-western region of Pakistan, and in Afghanistan. Fragments of this dhāraṇī in Uyghur letters were also recovered in the Tarim Basin. The dhāraṇī has been transcribed into Chinese characters in Chang'anand preserved in the Chinese Buddhist Canon which was then circulated widely in China including Korea, and Japan. Similarly, the dhāraṇī was transcribed into Tibetan and preserved in various Tibetan Kanjurs. To the southeast of India, the dhāraṇī found its way through the Bay of Bengal to the Thai-Malay Peninsula in Malaysia and the island of Java in Indonesia. Over there, the dhāraṇī was stamped on clay sealings, and engraved onto a gold foil respectively. Therefore, from this example of the transmission of the Bodhigarbhālaṅkāralakṣa-dhāraṇī alone, it can be deduced that the ideology of merit-making in Buddhism by way of specific ritual practices is shared in different regions. Even though the rituals might have taken different expressions in different locations, the quest for merit in desiring a better life and protection remains a common aspiration between people in Eastern India and the wider Asian region over the centuries and is still relevant today. |